Constructivism (ETEC 512)

Constructivism

Find the word that best suite each blank… it will keep your mind active!

 

cognitive

curiosity

dialogue

elaboration

hypotheses

initiative

interactive

metaphors

open-ended

responses

sharing

time

(Answers at the bottom)

 

  1. encourages students to take __________ and take ownership for their own learning, thereby developing their own intellectual identity
  2. uses raw data and primary sources along with manipulative, __________, and physical materials
  3. uses __________ terminology such as “classify,” “analyze,” “predict,” and “create” when framing tasks
  4. allows student __________ to drive lessons, shifts instructional strategies, and alters content
  5. inquires about students’ understandings of concepts before __________ their own understandings of those concepts
  6. encourages students to engage in __________ both with the teacher and with one another
  7. encourages student inquiry by asking thoughtful, __________ questions and encouraging students to ask questions of each other
  8. seeks __________ of students’ initial responses
  9. engages students in experiences that might engender contradictions to their initial __________ and then encourage discussion
  10. asks open-ended questions
  11. allows a waiting __________ after posing questions
  12. provides time for students to construct relationships and create __________
  13. nurtures students’ natural __________

1. initiative  2. interactive  3. cognitive  4. responses  5. sharing  6. dialogue  7. open-ended  8. elaboration  9. hypotheses  10. time  11. metaphors  12. curiosity

The role of culture or the social world in the transmission of knowledge (ETEC 512)

The role of culture or the social world in the transmission of knowledge

for Piaget, Bruner and Vygotsky

       Students’ learning experiences occur in a specific place, at a certain time and in a particular way; thus clearly associating education with the environment in which it is implemented.

The environment as an external object

       Although Piaget avoided the study of the environment as an agent of developmental change, his assimilation and accommodation concepts are linked with environmental factors. He stipulates that children construct an understanding of the world around them (culture and society) and that during the various developmental phases they acquire logical cognitive structures by applying them to that environment. He contends that these mental structures are active and evolve as they are being used; thus looking at the environment merely as an external, operative aspect of learning.

The environment and internal discovery

       Bruner values communication between learners as a way to prepare the mind for discovery. His enactive, iconic and symbolic modes of representation are acquired while interacting with the environment. These modes guide the learner’s inner construction of the world. Schooling is a cultural instrument where the learner’s problem solving capabilities, influenced by prior knowledge, should be enhanced in order to create an autonomous thinker.

The environment as interactive

       Vygotsky goes one step further and argues that culture does not just transform “how” you think but also “what” you think. Culture and society form the focal point of education and instructional strategies should engage students actively. His zone of proximal development involves an interaction between what students can and need to accomplish with the environment in which they evolve.

Conclusion

       The terms culture and society refer to people living in an environment, at a determined period of history and with distinct interaction patterns. Therefore when addressing knowledge transmission environmental elements are part of the parameters considered, albeit at different levels, in the theoretical constructions mentioned above.

To read original version, click on : Drolet TQ2

 

For more info, please see:

Wiki constructed by my ETEC – 512 group:

http://sites.google.com/site/constructivism512/Home/definitions-and-theorists

 

For all three theorists:

‘Instructor’s Notes’: http://www.indiana.edu/~p540alex/P540Fall02/unit5.html

Activity Theory, Situated Cognition and Distributed Cognition (ETEC 512)

Bonnie Nardi & Activity Theory, Situated Cognition and Distributed Cognition

She argues that Activity Theory is most comprehensive and useful for studying learning in contexts.

Do we agree or not? Why?

Jarrod Bell, Vanessa Case, Chantal Drolet, Sophie Rosso

       Nardi’s Human-Computer Interaction perspective provides insight into the differences between Situated Action Theory, Distributed Cognition and Activity Theory (AT) by explaining how educators can use technology for the benefit of the learner. We agree with Nardi that AT is the most comprehensive and best suited theory for studying people learning in contexts.

      In the Situated Action Theory, researchers consider the fluctuations of daily contexts and avoid the use of specific learning objectives because learning is seen as unintentional. These parameters present encumbrances when examining the learner in educational contexts. Indeed, investigators must record and manage minuscule fragments of interactions. Due to the improvisational and reactive targeting of the learner’s objectives within this framework, enquiries evade introspective artefacts, thus negating the student an active role in the analysis.

       Conversely, the Distributed Cognition approach facilitates detailed data collection and enables corrective actions through a co-operative, observable system; however, it fails to clearly differentiate the learner from the concepts studied. It views humans as abstract “channels”, blurring who is learning from what is being learned.

       In contrast, AT asserts that the learner is at the heart of the experience. Clearly defined activities take into account the learners’ motivations and decision-making abilities. The “learning is what you do” (Nardi, 1995) standpoint sharpens the researcher’s focus. It also allows the consideration of external dynamics (community, organization) while monitoring the learner’s control within those contexts. Furthermore, comparing learners is easier since researchers distinguish learners from the artefacts of learning contexts.

       In summary, Nardi’s AT selection enables a wide-ranging research of the interaction between the learner and technology while keeping the student at the centre of learning contexts. Furthermore, the AT approach provides manageable objectives, observable in a reasonable timeframe. For these reasons, AT is the most effective investigative approach for the study of human learning contexts.

References

Driscoll, M. (2005). Situated Cognition, Psychology of Learning for Instruction (pp. 153-182). Toronto: Pearson.

Hutchins, E. (2000). Distributed Cognition. Retrieved July 7, 2008, from IESBS Distributed

Cognition: http://eclectic.ss.uci.edu/~drwhite/Anthro179a/DistributedCognition.pdf

Nardi, B. (1998). Concepts of cognition and consciousness: four voices. Journal of Computer Documentation , 31-48.

Nardi, B. (1995). Studying context: A comparison of activity theory,situated action models, and distributed cogniton. In B. Nardi, Context and Consciousness: Activity Theory and Human-Computer Interaction (pp. 35-52). Cambridge: MIT Press.

Rogers, Y. (1997). A Brief Introduction to Distributed Cognition. Retrieved July 7, 2008, from http://www.slis.indiana.edu/faculty/yrogers/papers/dcog/dcog-brief-intro.pdf

Spasser, M. (1999). Informing information science: The case for activity theory. Journal of the American Society for Information Science , 1136-1138. Retrieved June 30, 2008 from http://dx.doi/10.1002/(SlCl)1097-4571(1999)50:12<1136AlD-ASl17>3.0.CO;2-0

Tolman, C. (1988). The basic vocabulary of Activity Theory. Activity Theory , 14-20. Retrieved June 30, 2008 from http://www.comnet.ca/~pballan/AT2.htm

Is learning online theoretically different? (ETEC 512)

Is learning online theoretically different?

Can it be encompassed under existing theories of learning?  

       Every new educational theory draws from previous learning perspectives. For instance, cognitivism promotes previous knowledge retrieval, also advocated by constructivism. Theories’ uniqueness resides in their respective definition of learning, which emerged from particular historical and sociological environments. Moreover, their inherent instructional strategies adjusted to the tools available at that time.

Online learning as a theory

       Learning online, recently associated with connectivism, warrants its own theory. The educational views it implies spring from the current societal ecology in which technological instruments prescribe a new definition of learning as well as interactive pedagogical strategies.

What is learning?

       Every respectable educational theory addresses the question “what is learning?” Online learning borrows from the constructivist approach in that learning is viewed as a continuous process occurring through interactions. Like cognitivism, learning is defined as organizing information.

       What makes the online learning outlook original is the idea that learning, with the support of technology, may happen outside the learner. Also, as part of our digital reality, what needs to be learned often shifts and becomes less important than how much and how fast one needs to learn (1).

Online instructional design

       Online instructional planning comprises new learning patterns involving decision making when confronted with diverse opinions and connecting information sources residing in data bases. Therefore educators must consider new learning challenges such as the increasing students’ responsibility over how and what they choose to learn. Learning hindrances facing future online education theorists include cultural specificities involved in learning and the quality of feedback they entail.

Conclusion

       Traditional learning theories offer valuable educational insights, but none of them is entirely adequate for the characteristics of the digital era. Conversely, online learning invites the possibility of a suitable theory for interactive technological platforms; it proffers solutions to society’s need for learner-centered (2) and networked educational experiences (1).

References

 

  1. http://www.connectivism.ca/about.html. Retrieved July 15, 2008.
  2. Connectivism (learning theory) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connectivism_(learning_theory). Retrieved July 17, 2008.
  3. Siemens, G. (2005). Connectivism: Learning as Network-Creation, http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/networks.htm. Retrieved July 17, 2008.
  4. Electronic Learning, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-based_training#Computer-based_training. Retrieved July 15, 2008.
  5. Innovating Learning, http://www.thejournal.com/the/newsletters/k12techtrends/archives/?aid=19188. Retrieved July 17, 2008.
  6. Mohamed, A. (2004). Athabasca University, Theory and Practice of Online Learning, Chapter 1, Foundation of Educational Theory for Online Learning, http://cde.athabascau.ca/online_book/ch1.html, Retrieved July 15, 2008.
  7. Siemens, G. (2004). Connectivism: A learning theory for the digital age.  Available online at: http://learningwithwikis.wikispaces.com/space/showimage/elearnspace.+Connectivism_+A+Learning+Theory+for+the+Digital+Age.pdf (CCM)

Behaviourism & SCL (ETEC 512)

 Behaviourism & SCL

Introduction

       Behaviourism concentrates its attention on controlling the learning conditions in order to create observable behaviour modification. In contrast, the SCL model contends that observations of others in social settings (family, cultural environment, media diffusion) affect knowledge acquisition. Therefore, it promotes the establishment of interactive instructional environments to achieve learning outcomes.

       The two methods consider that students achieve mastery through various stages of learning and address these “steps” or “levels of processing” with “reinforcement schedules” or “scaffolding” techniques. In both cases, learning goals are predetermined and lessons either “shape” behaviour or provide “modeling” to facilitate the learner’s knowledge acquisition.

       For classical conditioning, learning happens when the individual responds to specific stimuli in a desired way. This method is well suited for tasks involving rote memorization of facts or operations (introductory learning). According to the SCL theory, learning occurs through problem-solving experiences shared with a mentor, instructor or peer. This approach lends itself to classifying, organizing or synthesizing content (advanced knowledge).

       For behaviourists, reward and punishment encourage prescribed mechanistic behaviours. SCL also uses reinforcement, but suggests that it affects the learner’s motivation rather than behaviour.

       In SCL, language is an essential transmission tool for learning. This tool not only serves to externalize the knowledge, but also as self-talk, which influences the student’s attitude. Behaviourism cannot explain how children distinguish new words without reinforcement.

       SCL assessment provides opportunities to evaluate the learning process as well as objective knowledge applications, while behaviourism usually resorts to standardized testing models. For behaviourists, self-regulated learners produce the right answer; for SCL, they monitor their own progress.

Conclusion

       In conclusion, both approaches program the learner’s knowledge acquisition and endeavour to demonstrate expertise objectively. The goal of social cognitive learning is to facilitate knowledge through communication, whereas behaviourism is about training the individual learner through successes and mistakes.

References

Standridge, M., (2002). Behaviourism. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Available online: http://www.coe.uga.edu/epitt/Behaviorism.htm

Mergel, B. (1998). Design & Learning Theory. In Educational Communications and Technology, University of Saskatchewan. Retrieved from: http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm, May 23, 2008. 

Boetcher, J., (1998). Pedagogy and Learning Strategies, California State University at Sacramento.

Retrieved from: http://vccslitonline.cc.va.us/usingweb/bckgrnd.htm, May 24, 2008

Stanford University, Behaviorism. First published Fri May 26, 2000; substantive revision Mon Jul 30, 2007

Retrieved from: http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/behaviorism/, May 24, 2008

Philosophy of Education (ETEC 512)

 PERSONAL LEARNING THEORY

By: Chantal Drolet

Wriiten for: EDUC 512 (Dr. Cliff Falk), University of British Columbia, 2008

(To see the origital format, please click on: cdrolet-plt-revised)

       Learning is a process occurring when learners acquire memories and develop behaviors. It is facilitated by active (8) knowledge acquisition, which is the focus of learner-centered instructional design. Learning entails integration of information, reinforced by comprehensive assessment procedures. Since learning requires the fulfilment of personal skill sets, the teacher’s role is to provide adequate scaffolding. As learning also demands social participation, educators must situate cognition culturally by creating authentic learning experiences within communities of practice (1).

Learner-centered education

       Humans are organic beings, have feelings, possess the ability to reason, and live within social contexts. All these characteristics influence learning operations by filtering experiences through perceptions and attitudes. Consequently, effective learning comes with spirited participation; self-regulation (5); opportunities to reflect about one’s own biases; and avenues to share and modify understanding.

Creating knowledge

       Learning by trial and error, as presented by behaviourists (9), consolidates individual knowledge. From a constructivist perspective (4), interactivity also optimizes learning. Information can therefore be classified and encoded in the long term memory, as emphasized by cognitivism (6) through inquiry-based group work (2). Furthermore effective online learning fosters adjustment of previous assumptions through networking, as advocated by connectivism (7).

Learning assessment

       Transferability (3) and knowledge expansion are crucial aspects of learning and are supported by assessment strategies incorporating well defined diagnostic, formative and summative components. Affective, intellectual and psychomotor competences are integral to learning and demand frequent evaluations (5).

Teaching to learn and contribute

        Learning is enhanced when teachers nurture learners’ self-confidence by presenting challenging tasks in an organized fashion; welcoming students’ input; giving learners pertinent guidance and fostering constructive learning environments. Experienced educators link scholarly achievements to relevant collective involvement.

Conclusion

       My learning theory is based on a learner-centered educational perspective, supported by motivating and structured learning events; continuous and purposeful feedback, as well as meaningful interaction leading to personal autonomy and responsible social contribution.

 

References

•1.      CCM: Driscoll. M.P. (2005). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (pp. 153-182; Ch. 5 – Situated Cognition). Toronto, ON: Pearson.

  • a. P. 159: “Learning as Participants in Communities of Practice”

•2.      CCM: Driscoll. M.P. (2005). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (pp. 227-244; Ch. 7 – Interactional Theories of Cognitive Development). Toronto, ON: Pearson. 

  • a. P. 227: “Interactions […] important to consider […].”
  • b. P. “Guided practice in inquiry […] conditions for discovery learning […].”

•3.      CCM: How people Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School (2000). Chapter 3: Learning and Transfer. Available online at: http://www.nap.edu/html/howpeople1/ 

•4.      CCM: Miller, P. H. (2002). Theories of Developmental Psychology, 4th Ed. (pp. 367-396; Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Approach). New York: Worth.

  • a. P. 373: “… focus on children’s participation in activities […].”
  • b. P. 393: “Collaborative Problem Solving” 

•5.      Peer, K. S. & Martin, M. (2005).The Learner-Centered Syllabus: From Theory to Practice in Allied Health Education, The Internet Journal of Allied Health Sciences and Practice, Vol. 3 No. 2, ISSN 1540-580X. http://ijahsp.nova.edu/articles/vol3num2/peer.htm. Retrieved July 18, 2008.

  • a. Printer version, page 3: “… promoting self-regulated learning…”
  • b. Printer version, page 8: “Defining Evaluations Strategies” […] Students […] demonstrate […] cognitive, psychomotor and affective content […].”

•6.      CCM: Schunk, D. H. (2004). Learning Theories: An Educational Perspective, pp.136-189 (ch. 4).  Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

  • a. P. 175: “Encoding Specificity”

•7.      Siemens, G. (2004). Connectivism: A learning theory for the digital age.  Available online at: http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/connectivism.htm.

  • a. P. 1: “Some significant trends in learning: … learning occurs through personal networks, […]. “
  • b. P. 4: “This cycle of knowledge development […] allows learners to remain current I their field […].” (challenge assumptions)

•8.      Bonwel, C.C., Eison, J.A. (© Copyright 1996-2003). Published by James Rhem & Associates, LLC. (ISSN 1057-2880), http://www.ntlf.com/html/lib/bib/91-9dig.htm. Retrieved July 24, 2008.

•9.      CCM: Standridge, M. (2002). Behaviorism. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Available online: http://www.coe.uga.edu/epltt/Behaviorism.htm

•10. Smith, M. K. (1999). ‘Learning theory’, the encyclopedia of informal education, www.infed.org/biblio/b-learn.htm, Last update in 2003. Retrieved July 23, 2008.

Personal Learning Theory (ETEC 512)

 PERSONAL LEARNING THEORY

        I believe learning to be a process rather than a product. Although our educational institutions often quantify knowledge, it is not enough to know “lots”. In contrast, learning is a continuous acquisition process. When my students create films, they write the script, film and edit. These operations require constant re-evaluation and repositioning.  A perspective based on apprenticeship and nurturing

       I can see, like the behaviourists, that learning changes behaviour. After taking film production classes, many students use this medium to create assignments in other subjects. I recognize that a mental process occurs, as the cognitive approach stipulates. For example, students often gain insights such as developing a critical eye when watching movies. There is also some truth in the humanist standpoint. My nurturing side tells me that without the fulfillment of affective needs, students cannot make the most of their potential.

       However, the apprenticeship perspective is the one with which I identify the most since it links learning with society. My film students exemplify this model when participating in competitions where their films are categorized and judged by professionals in the field.

What is the purpose of education?

       Education should produce a targeted behavioural transformation: my students should be able to film and edit digital footage by the end of the course. Additionally, learners should improve their learning capacity: if film students are in the second year of a program, they should be able to handle more difficult projects. Furthermore, students should become autonomous: their improved self-assurance should allow them to celebrate both their successes and their failures.

       In conclusion, there are many ways to learn or to instruct. Learners have various cerebral pathways, cultures and aspirations. Teacher’s preferential methods differ according to their training and personalities. What is essential is to acknowledge the distinctions and adopt a flexible attitude.  

   References

Pratt, D.D. (2002). Good teaching: One size fits all? In Jovita Gordon (Ed.), An Update on Teaching Theory. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Available online at: http://www.teachingperspectives.com/PDF/goodteaching.pd 

Alinsky, S. (2008). Learning theory – models, product and process

Retrieved from: http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-lean.htm, May 14, 2008